Everything about Alan Arnold Griffith totally explained
Alan Arnold Griffith (
13 June 1893 –
13 Oct 1963) was an
English engineer, who, among many other contributions, is best known for his work on
stress and
fracture in metals that's now known as
metal fatigue, as well as being one of the first to develop a strong theoretical basis for the
jet engine.
Early work
Griffith took a first in mechanical engineering, followed by a Master’s Degree and a Doctorate from
Liverpool University. In
1915 he was accepted by the
Royal Aircraft Factory as a trainee, before joining the Physics and Instrument Department the following year in what was now been renamed as the
Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE).
Some of Griffith's earlier works remain in widespread use today. In
1917 he and
G. I. Taylor suggested the use of soap films as a way of studying stress problems. Using this method a soap bubble is stretched out between several strings representing the edges of the object under study, and the coloration of the film shows the patterns of stress. This method, and similar ones, were used well into the
1990s when computer power became generally available that could do the same experiment numerically.
Metal fatigue
Griffith is more famous for a theoretical study on the nature of stress and failure in metals. At the time it was generally taken that the strength of a material was E/10, where E was the
Young's modulus for that material. However it was well known that those materials would often fail at 1000 times less than this predicted value. Griffith discovered that there were many microscopic cracks in every material, and hypothesized that these cracks lowered the overall strength of the material. This was because any void in a solid concentrates stress, a fact already well known to machinists at the time. This concentration would allow the stress to reach E/10 at the head of the crack long before it would seem to for the material as a whole.
From this work Griffith formulated his own theory of brittle fracture, using elastic
strain energy concepts. His theory described the behavior of crack propagation of an elliptical nature by considering the energy involved. The equation basically states that when a crack is able to propagate enough to fracture a material, that the gain in the surface energy is equal to the loss of strain energy, and is considered to be the primary equation to describe brittle fracture. Because the strain energy released is directly proportional to the square of the crack length, it's only when the crack is relatively short that its energy requirement for propagation exceeds the strain energy available to it. Beyond the critical Griffith crack length, the crack becomes dangerous.
The work, published in
1920 ("The phenomenon of rupture and flow in solids"), resulted in sweeping changes in many industries. Suddenly the "hardening" of materials due to processes such as
cold-rolling were no longer mysterious. Aircraft designers immediately understood why their designs had failed even though they were built much stronger than was thought necessary at the time, and soon turned to polishing their metals in order to remove cracks. The result was a series of particularly beautiful designs in the
1930s, such as the
Boeing 247. This work was later generalized by
G. R. Irwin, in the
1950s, applying it to almost all materials, not just rigid ones.
Turbine engines
In
1926 he published a seminal paper,
An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design. He demonstrated that the woeful performance of existing turbines was due to a flaw in their design which meant the blades were "flying stalled", and proposed a modern
airfoil shape for the blades that would dramatically improve their performance. The paper went on to describe an engine using an
axial compressor and two-stage turbine, the first stage driving the compressor, the second a power-take-off shaft that would be used to power a propeller. This early design was a forerunner of the
turboprop engine. As a result of the paper, the
Aeronautical Research Committee supported a small-scale experiment with a single-stage axial compressor and single-stage axial turbine. Work was completed in
1928 with a working testbed design, and from this a
a series of designs was built to test various concepts.
At about this time
Frank Whittle wrote his thesis on turbine engines, using a
centrifugal compressor and single-stage turbine, the leftover power in the exhaust being used to power the aircraft directly. Whittle sent his paper to the
Air Ministry in
1930, who passed it on to Griffith for comment. After pointing out an error in Whittle's calculations, he stated that the large frontal size of the compressor would make it impractical for aircraft use, and that the exhaust itself would provide little thrust. The Air Ministry replied to Whittle saying they were not interested in the design. Whittle was crestfallen, but was convinced by friends in the RAF to pursue the idea anyway. Luckily for all involved, Whittle patented his design in
1930 and was able to start
Power Jets in 1935 to develop it.
Griffith went on to become the principal scientific officer in charge of the new Air Ministry Laboratory in South Kensington. There he invented the
contraflow gas turbine, which used two sets of compressor disks rotating in opposite directions, one "inside" the other. This is as opposed to the more normal design in which the compressors blow the air against a
stator, essentially a non-moving compressor disk. The effect on compression efficiency was noticeable, but so was the effect on complexity of the engine. In
1931 he returned to the RAE to take charge of engine research, but it wasn't until
1938, when he became head of the Engine Department, that work on developing an axial-flow engine actually started. Joined by
Hayne Constant, they started work on Griffith's original non-contraflow design, working with steam turbine manufacturer
Metropolitan-Vickers (Metrovick).
After a short period Whittle's work at Power Jets started to make major progress and Griffith was forced to re-evaluate his stance on using the jet directly for propulsion. A quick redesign in early
1940 resulted in the
Metrovick F.2, which ran for the first time later that year. The F.2 was ready for flight tests in 1943 with a thrust of 2,150 lbf, and flew as replacement engines on a
Gloster Meteor, the F.2/40 in November. The smaller engine resulted in a design that looked considerably more like the
Me 262, and had improved performance. Nevertheless the engine was considered too complex, and not put into production.
Griffith's original rejection of Whittle's concepts has long been commented on. It certainly set back development of the jet engine in England. His motivations have long been the topic of curiosity, with many people suggesting that his endless quest for perfectionism was the main reason he didn't like Whittle's "ugly" little engine, or perhaps the belief that "his" design was innately superior.
Griffith joined
Rolls-Royce in
1939, working there until
1960. He designed the AJ.65 axial
turbojet which led to the development of the
Avon engine, the company's first production axial turbojet. He then turned to the
turbofan (known as "bypass" in England) design and was instrumental in introducing the
Rolls-Royce Conway. Griffith carried out pioneering research into
vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) technology, culminating in the development of the
Rolls-Royce Thrust Measuring Rig.
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